Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula began in 711 CE when forces led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed from North Africa and defeated the Visigothic kingdom, eventually giving rise to the sophisticated Muslim civilization known as al-Andalus. Cities such as Cordoba, Seville, and Granada became major centers of learning, architecture, agriculture, and commerce, and for long stretches al-Andalus was known for relatively tolerant coexistence among Muslims, Christians, and Jews, though the degree and consistency of this tolerance varied by period and ruler. Political fragmentation after the collapse of the Cordoban Caliphate in the eleventh century split Muslim territory into smaller rival kingdoms known as taifas, leaving them vulnerable to the gradual Christian military campaigns known as the Reconquista. Despite periods of resurgence under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties, Muslim-held territory steadily shrank over the following centuries. The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, the last Muslim state in Iberia, survived as a tributary state until it fell to the combined forces of Ferdinand and Isabella in January 1492. The fall of Granada was followed in subsequent decades by forced conversions, expulsions, and the effective end of open Muslim religious life in Spain, closing nearly eight centuries of Muslim presence in the peninsula.
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